The Travels of Sir John Mandeville

The Travels of Sir John Mandeville begins by describing the Holy Land (roughly the area between the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern bank of the Jordan River) as the place where Jesus lived, performed miracles, and died, making it consecrated. It was the best place for God to become incarnate because it is the center of the world, allowing more people to observe Jesus’s deeds. Mandeville says that this land is the rightful property of Christians; all good Christians who are able should set themselves to conquering it. It is a sign of the sinful state of Christian rulers that they fight each other instead, and the righteous among the common people are helpless unless they have virtuous lords to lead them.

The writer then introduces himself as Sir John Mandeville, a knight of St Albans who set out to travel on Michaelmas Day in 1322. Over the course of his travels, he saw many kingdoms and intends to give information on what they are like and how to reach them.

Mandeville claims that there are many ways to get to Jerusalem, but he wants to focus on the most important. From Western Europe, a traveler can go through Germany to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Danube River. Following the Danube, they will reach Belgrade and from there pass through the Byzantine Empire to reach Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).

Once in Constantinople, the traveler should visit the Hagia Sophia, which Mandeville calls the most beautiful church in the world. Outside of this church is a golden statue of Justinian. The statue once held an apple in its hand, and its loss signifies the decline of the Byzantine Empire.

Mandeville turns to a discussion of holy relics. The sponge and reed Jesus drank from while being crucified are preserved in Constantinople. Some claim that the cross on which he was crucified is in Cyprus, but Mandeville says Cyprus actually has the cross of one of the thieves who was executed next to Jesus. The True Cross was buried under the rock of Mount Calvary (in Jerusalem) until Helena, the mother of Rome’s first Christian emperor, uncovered it.

Many relics of Jesus’s death are now in Paris, including part of the Crown of Thorns, the head of the Lance of Longinus (which was used to stab Jesus), and one of the nails that affixed him to the cross. The other part of the Crown of Thorns is in Constantinople, and the Byzantines claim to also have the head of the Lance of Longinus, which Mandeville says he saw many times. The German emperor owns the shaft of this lance.

Returning to the narrative, Mandeville gives some details about Constantinople. He lists the famous Christians buried there and says the city is beautiful. Mandeville lists the various islands and lands near Constantinople, highlighting Macedonia as the birthplace of Alexander the Great and Stagira as the birthplace of Aristotle.

The religious differences between Latin Christianity and Greek Orthodoxy are then explored. Mandeville records that the Greek Orthodox reject papal supremacy and criticize the pride of the pope. Mandeville lists several other differences, emphasizing that he thinks it is scandalous that the Greek Church sells ecclesiastical offices. He ends the chapter by writing out the Greek alphabet for the benefit of other travelers.

While doctrinal differences do not have a bearing on how to get to the Holy Land, Mandeville wants to describe them because he promised the reader knowledge of the customs and manners of different countries. Mandeville then discusses two routes to continue the journey from Constantinople. Those who wish to travel overland through Turkey should cross the Bosporus and go to Nicaea, where he leaves the route for now. Those traveling by sea should go to Chios, Patmos, Ephesus, Myra, Crete, Colcos (Colos), and Lango. Mandeville gives facts about the religious significance of many of these places (e.g., that the Book of Revelations was written on Patmos) and then focuses on Lango.

Mandeville claims that at Lango, the goddess Diana changed the daughter of Hippocrates (an ancient doctor) into a dragon. She will become human when she is kissed by a knight, but so far none have been brave enough. When one does, they will become lord of the island. After Lango, Mandeville instructs travelers to go to Rhodes.

Going from Rhodes to Cyprus, a traveler will pass the now destroyed city of Adalia, which was cursed a long time ago. Mandeville then gives information on the holy relics, cities, and customs of Cyprus. Once at Cyprus, a pilgrim can choose if they want to sail to Tyre (where they can travel inland to Syria or down the coast toward Jerusalem) or Jaffa, the port nearest Jerusalem. Along the routes he lays out, Mandeville emphasizes locations where events in the Bible happened, recommending them to potential religious tourists.

Acre, a city on the path from Tyre, has the unique attraction of a pit of gravel that is never diminished regardless of how much is taken out. Any metal placed in it becomes glass, and the gravel itself can also be turned into very good glass. Three days away from here is the city of Gaza, and the route from Gaza to Jerusalem is simple. However, Mandeville suggests visiting Babylon (i.e., Cairo) first, then Mount Sinai, and then Jerusalem to save travel time.

Mandeville introduces Egypt as the setting of various biblical events, such as Mary’s flight from King Herod. Mandeville claims that while in Babylon he served the sultan as a soldier and was offered a prince’s daughter in marriage if he converted to Islam. He refused.

The sultan (also called the caliph) rules five kingdoms: Egypt, Jerusalem, Syria, Aleppo, and Arabia, each of which once had its own ruler. Mandeville gives a brief history of recent sultans, relating events that brought the Mamluks to power and detailing the succession of leaders that led to Melechimandabron, the sultan ruling when Mandeville left Egypt.

Details about the sultan’s government and customs are given, including the size of his army, the office of emir (local ruler), the sultan’s multiple wives, and the process of petitioning. After this, Mandeville explains that the sultan does not live in the biblical Babylon. That Babylon was destroyed by the ancient King Cyrus and is now overrun by snakes and dragons.

Traveling from Babylon through the Arabian deserts takes one to Mecca. Mandeville claims this city is important to Muslims because it houses the body of Muhammad. On the other end of the Arabian Desert are Mesopotamia and Baghdad, the old home of the caliph before Saladin changed it to Egypt. The modern Babylon is situated on the Nile, a river that flows out of the “Earthly Paradise” through India before going underground, resurfacing near Ethiopia, and finally going to Egypt. Mandeville describes how the Nile floods each year and discusses the importance of the Nile to Egyptian life.

Mandeville talks about the geography of Egypt; it is a long but narrow country because life is concentrated around the Nile or oases. The country is organized into five districts and bordered in the south by the Nubian people, whom Mandeville characterizes as Christian and dark skinned.

More information about Egypt is then given. In Heliopolis, an Egyptian city, there is a multicolored phoenix that lives for 500 years, burns to ashes on an altar, turns into a worm, and finally becomes a bird once more. Also in Egypt are fruits that blossom eight times a year, fine emeralds to be mined, infestations of mice whenever it rains, bananas that rot before they can be taken elsewhere, and an extensive trade of enslaved persons.

Near Cairo is a field where Jesus played as a youth. Balms grow there that cannot grow in other gardens, and only Christians can tend to them. Mandeville warns that some Muslim merchants will try to deceive Christians when they are buying balm, so he gives readers a test to check whether the balm is authentic. Mandeville then describes the pyramids, thinking that they were the barns of the biblical Joseph, used to store grain during the famine. He dismisses the view that they are graves as unlikely.

He concludes the chapter by giving a summation of the Coptic alphabet for travelers to use.