The Alchemy of Us: How Humans and Matter Transformed One Another

Chapter 1 focuses on the development of accurate timekeeping devices and their impact on society. The chapter opens with the story of Ruth Belville, also known as the Greenwich Time Lady, who from 1892 to 1940 earned a living by helping people keep the time. Her highly accurate pocket watch, Arnold, was made of the highest quality metals and thus showed the most accurate time. Ramirez begins with a description of Belville’s physical appearance, which helps readers envision the scene and relate to her: “She wore a dark dress cinched with a broad waistband that offered a hint there was a slim shape underneath the thick fabric. Her ankle-length hem cast a wide shadow that obscured her shoes from sight. Her hair was gathered up neatly under her hat and on her arm hung a modest yet oversized handbag” (1).

Similarly, Ramirez includes personal details about Canadian scientist Warren Marrison, who first used quartz in timekeeping devices to improve their accuracy: “Marrison was a clever and quiet Canadian boy” who dreamed of “escaping his father’s bee farm [...] and worked hard in school to get to America to fulfill his vision for the future” (11). His vision materialized in 1939, when a store on Fulton Street in New York City installed a new clock. Because it used quartz—a special type of crystal that vibrates in any electric current—this clock was more accurate than any other. Marrison’s slim quartz ring used an electrical current to make it vibrate at a constant rate of 100 thousand vibrations per second. This invention allowed us to measure time with perfect accuracy.

Ramirez emphasizes how developments in timekeeping technology reinforced contemporary ideologies. For example, the Puritans who immigrated to America in the 17th century believed that time was precious and not to be wasted, while Benjamin Franklin promoted capitalism with the phrase “time is money” (5). The industrialized American economy of the 19th century demanded tight controls on time. Factories used accurate clocks to prompt workers to start and end work at precise times. This strict approach to time management soon spread to other facets of daily life, compelling people to eat and sleep during specific times of the day.

However, Ramirez points out that although accurate timekeeping increases worker productivity, it also can lead to sleep disorders, which in turn impact the brain. Imposing schedules on sleep is especially problematic because it disrupts the body’s natural sleep pattern, which comprises two distinct intervals known as first sleep and second sleep. Ramirez argues that the shift from natural and biological cues to clock time accounts for a rise in sleep disorders. She cites studies to support this claim. Approximately 50 to 70 million Americans suffer from sleep disorders or sleep deprivation. In addition, nearly one in eight Americans who have problems sleeping use sleep-aid prescriptions. According to the National Sleep Foundation, most Americans do not get the optimal seven hours of continuous sleep per night. Studies show that the lack of sleep can result in medical problems. Innovations in timekeeping may also affect the human brain. Neurological studies reveal that the brain gets cues about time from its environment. Innovations in timekeeping, then, not only shaped how people organized their lives but also impacted the brain’s internal clock.